Grammar Central: Basics for Communicating Clearly, topics

	Basics for Communicating Clearly ________________________________________
	Questions or comments? Contact Linda Shacklock.

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	a, an [all topics] Choose the article a or an by how you normally pronounce the term that follows. Use a before a consonant sound. a historic document, a human, a uniform surface, a U.S. trade agreement Use an before a vowel sound. an honor, an HF transmitter, an unknown quantity, an S-curve
	accept, except [all topics] accept (verb) = to take when offered except (preposition) = with the exclusion or exception of The project manager accepted all the test results except those from the island of Atlantis. except (verb) = to exclude or omit Of all the test results, the manager excepted those from the island of Atlantis. Tip: Because few readers understand except as a verb, we should avoid using it.
	adapt, adopt [all topics] adapt = to make fit, to modify adopt = to take up, to accept The company adapted the software to the product that it adopted.
	affect, effect [all topics] affect (verb) = to influence, to have an effect on Please explain how that decision affects the schedule. effect (noun) = the result of an action Please explain the effect of that decision on the schedule. effect (verb) = to bring about, to cause, to achieve Hiring workers with enhanced skills effected a new production schedule. Tip: Because few readers understand effect as a verb, we should avoid using it.
	amount, number [all topics] amount (noun) = a term that relates to mass or bulk amount of money amount of writing amount of time amount of population number (noun) = a term that relates to separate, countable units number of dollars number of words number of hours number of people Tip: "How much?" Use amount. "How many?" Use number.
	assure, ensure, insure [all topics] Use assure to mean removing doubt from a person's mind. The programmer assured me that he'd meet the deadline. Use ensure to mean making things certain or safe. To ensure correct operation, close the door until it latches. Use insure with regard to insurance. You must insure your car before you apply for license plates.
	Avoid Useless Words [all topics] To achieve clear, concise writing, avoid words that add no meaning. You can usually delete or rewrite to avoid these words: any, character, in order, it is, located, matter of, nature, possible, proximity, purpose of, serve to, somewhat, there are, there is, various, very
	Commas — a partial guide to using commas [all topics] Tip: Read the sentence to yourself, and use a comma where you need a short pause between thoughts or items in the sentence. Use comma(s) to set off mildly interrupting phrases. Jane, unlike Sue, now attends college. In Arizona, as in Montana, the sky is usually clear blue, not gray. Use a comma after an introductory phrase. To become thinner, we need to eat less and exercise more. Unlike Sue, Jane is now in college. Use a comma after an introductory clause. When Jane left for college, her mom was sad. Because you’re an intelligent girl, you’ll be successful in college. Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction between independent clauses. Jane's aunt Marie lives in South Carolina, and her uncle George lives in Illinois. Jane now lives in Billings, but Sue and her parents still live in Hamilton. You can stay in your room to study, or you can walk to the library to study. Use a comma in direct address. What’s new, Jane? Put me in, Coach! Hi, Sue. Use commas between items in a series. The Jones family members are Dad, Mom, Kim, Jane, Sue, and Mark. You’ll need a computer, a printer, a cell phone, and several other items. Do you want a hamburger, tacos, or pizza? Tip: To prevent ambiguity or confusion, always use the comma before the and. Use commas between adjectives that modify a noun. She’s a beautiful, athletic, talented college freshman. Tip: Notice that using and in place of each comma would make sense: She’s a beautiful and athletic and talented college freshman. Don't use commas between adjectives that modify each other. She likes bright yellow happy faces to decorate her room. Tip: Notice that using and between adjectives would not make sense: She likes bright and yellow and happy faces to decorate her room. Don’t join independent clauses with a comma. (This makes a run-on sentence, also called a comma splice.) Wrong: I brought you rice crackers again, do you still like them? Right, with semicolon: I brought you rice crackers again; do you still like them? Right, with period: I brought you rice crackers again. Do you still like them? Wrong: She’s a beautiful girl, however she’s not at all conceited. Right, with semicolon plus comma: She’s a beautiful girl; however, she’s not at all conceited. Better, with but: She’s a beautiful girl, but she’s not at all conceited.
	could've, should've, would've, may've, might've [all topics] could've = contraction of could have Joe could've taken a job in New York. should've = contraction of should have Mary should've gone to college. would've = contraction of would have We would've been glad to meet the president. may've = contraction of may have She may've taken a wrong turn. might've = contraction of might have If I had had more money, I might've bought a new car. Tip: The forms could of, should of, would of, may of, and might of are never correct.
	criterion, criteria [all topics] criterion = the singular form Which criterion is most important? criteria = the plural form All three criteria are important to the decision.
	data — singular or plural? [all topics] Grammar Central agrees with Patricia T. O'Conner in her book Woe Is I: The Grammarphobe's Guide to Better English in Plain English: "It's time to admit that data has joined agenda, erotica, insignia, opera, and other technically plural Latin and Greek words that have become thoroughly Anglicized as singular nouns, taking singular verbs. No plural form is necessary, and the old singular form, datum, can be left to the Romans." However, if controlling style guides require using data as a plural noun, this usage note in the Merriam-Webster online dictionary (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary) explains both constructions as standard: "Data leads a life of its own quite independent of datum, of which it was originally the plural. It occurs in two constructions: as a plural noun (like earnings), taking a plural verb and plural modifiers (as these, many, a few) but not cardinal numbers [never one data, a hundred data], and serving as a referent for plural pronouns; and as an abstract mass noun (like information), taking a singular verb and singular modifiers (as this, much, little), and being referred to by a singular pronoun. Both constructions are standard. The plural construction is more common in print, perhaps because the house style of some publishers mandates it."
	e.g., i.e. [all topics] Avoid using the abbreviations e.g. ("for example") and i.e. ("that is"), because most readers don't know the difference between them. Instead of e.g., reword the sentence using "for example" or "such as" or similar term. Instead of i.e., reword the sentence using "that is" or "in other words" or similar term.
	farther, further [all topics] farther = a term that relates to physical, measurable distance Phoenix is farther from Chicago than from Dallas. further = a term that relates to abstract quantity or degree We will discuss the issue further at the staff meeting.
	her, hers [all topics] her, hers = possessive forms of she Her schedule must match the needs of the project. Are your test results better than hers? Tip: The form her's and the form hers' are never correct.
	I/me, he/him, she/her, we/us, they/them [all topics] (This piece is based on an article that Linda Shacklock originally wrote for the STC Metro Baltimore Chapter newsletter and that was reprinted in Technical Communication, Third Quarter 1990.) Would we ever say “Jack brought books for I and Amy”? No. Then why are some tempted to say “Jack brought books for Amy and I”? Personal pronouns (other than you) aren’t common in technical communication, but using them correctly in speech and in writing is worthy of the professional communicator’s attention. I have a two-part theory for why normally competent speakers of English have trouble with personal pronouns, especially I/me, he/him, and she/her, not so much we/us and they/them: As children, our parents and teachers taught us not to say “Me want a cracker” or “Him’s my brother,” but some of us never learned how me differs functionally from I, how him differs from he. As adults, we fear the humiliation of appearing undereducated or underrefined, so we tend to use pronouns that some believe sound more highbrow — I, he, she rather than me, him, her — except when those “highbrow” forms sound silly to us, as in “Jack brought books for I.” Single subjects, compound subjects, and single objects normally cause no confusion: He [single subject] brought books for me [single object]. They [single subject] brought books for us [single object]. Jack and he [compound subject] brought books for her [single object]. She and Gail [compound subject] brought books for them [single object]. Compound objects, though, sometimes fool even the most careful speakers and writers. These examples of compound objects are correct: He brought books for you and me. [Never correct: …for you and I.] Jack told Amy and him about the movie. [Never correct: …told Amy and he….] Gail gave tickets to him and his brother. [Never correct: …to he and his brother.] He brought books for you and us. [Never correct: …for you and we.] Jack told Amy and them about the movie. [Never correct: …told Amy and they….] If we can’t get the “easy” stuff right (pronouns), why should our employers, our clients, and our SMEs think we can get the technical stuff right?
	into, in to [all topics] Use the word into to indicate entering something. Get into the car. Go into the business of technical communication. Use into to indicate changing the form of something. When the ice turns into water, dump it out. If the one-person project turns into a two-person project, we'll adjust the estimated hours. Use into to indicate making contact with something. If you run into a problem, ask for help. Try not to drive into the garage wall. If you can drop the word in but keep the essential meaning, you need the two words in to. When the butler appears, the guests will go in to dinner. Tune in to channel 8 for the 6 o'clock news. With thanks to Patricia T. O'Conner's book Woe Is I: The Grammarphobe's Guide to Better English in Plain English.
	its, it's [all topics] its = possessive form of it The results of the second test indicate its [the test's] validity. it's = contraction of it is or it has The results of the second test indicate it's [it is] valid. It's [it has] been a productive meeting. Tip: If you can substitute it is or it has for its in a sentence, the term you need is it’s. Tip: The term its' is never correct.
	less, fewer [all topics] less (modifier) = a term that relates to mass or bulk less money less writing less time less population less fat fewer (modifier) = a term that relates to separate, countable units fewer dollars fewer words fewer hours fewer people fewer calories Tip: "How much?" Use less. "How many?" Use fewer.
	-ly ending [all topics] Words that end in -ly are usually adverbs. Use a space, not a hyphen, between the adverb and the word it modifies. Wrong: a simply-stated instruction Right: a simply stated instruction
	our, ours [all topics] our, ours = possessive forms of us Our schedules must match the needs of the project. Are your test results better than ours? Tip: The form our's and the form ours' are never correct.
	Plural Abbreviations [all topics] Although some sources recommend using an apostrophe to make an abbreviation plural, most technical communicators use the clean style of omitting the apostrophe in a plural abbreviation. ATM, ATMs GIF, GIFs ICBM, ICBMs JPEG, JPEGs MBA, MBAs PC, PCs PDF, PDFs
	Plural Nouns [all topics] More and more these days, we see an apostrophe mistakenly used to make a noun plural (more than one). Don't do that! book, books bus, buses computer, computers day, days dollar, dollars glass, glasses Jones family, the Joneses story, stories yes and no, yeses and nos
	Possessive Plural Nouns [all topics] For a plural noun that does not end in s, add apostrophe plus s to make the noun possessive. two children's jackets the men's basketball team For a plural noun that ends in s, add just an apostrophe to make the noun possessive. several books' covers many buses' new paint the companies' logos the glasses' colors the Joneses' house
	Possessive Singular Nouns [all topics] No matter which letter ends a singular noun, add apostrophe plus s to make the noun possessive. one book's cover one bus's driver one child's jacket one company's logo one glass's rim Mr. Jones's car one man's basketball Phoenix's mayor
	respective, respectively [all topics] To help users easily understand content, avoid the terms respective and respectively. Hard to grasp: The respective temperatures at 0600, 1400, and 2200 hours were 34, 59, and 42. The temperatures were 34, 59, and 42 at 0600, 1400, and 2200 hours, respectively. Better: The temperatures were 34 at 0600 hours, 59 at 1400 hours, and 42 at 2200 hours.
	than, then [all topics] Use the word than to compare one thing to another. The second version of the software is simpler to use than the first version. The manager's salary is greater than mine. Saving money is easier said than done. Also use than to indicate difference of some sort. He'd rather play soccer than baseball. She'd like to be anywhere than at the office. Use the word then to indicate a sequence of time. Try the first version of the software, then the second version. You said you worked for IBM, but where did you live then? Do steps 1 through 3. Then check the meter reading again. He plays soccer on Tuesday, then baseball on Thursday. She's going to the client meeting, then to the office.
	their, theirs, they're [all topics] their, theirs = possessive forms of they Their test results indicate their intelligence. Are his test results better than theirs? Tip: The form their's and the form theirs' are never correct. they're = contraction of they are Their test results indicate they're [they are] intelligent. They're [They are] responsible for saving their files. Tip: If you can substitute they are for their in a sentence, the term you need is they're.
	there's, there're [all topics] there's = contraction of there is There's [There is] a problem [singular noun] with the software. There's [There is] one task [singular noun] left to do. Tip: The form theres and the form theres' are never correct. there're = contraction of there are There're [There are] several problems [plural noun] with the software. There're [There are] three tasks [plural noun] left to do.
	Use Strong Verbs [all topics] To achieve clear, concise writing, avoid smothering strong verbs as objects of weaker verbs. Smothered: conduct an inspection, take the measurement, give consideration to Strong: inspect, measure, consider
	who [all topics] Like the pronouns I, he, she, we, and they, the pronoun who is used as the subject of a verb. Who is in charge of the meeting? Who shall I say is calling? Please determine who the leaders are. The manager will decide who goes to the conference. The writers who Donna said are good stay too busy to help.
	whoever [all topics] Like the pronoun who, the pronoun whoever is used as the subject of a verb, but whoever leads to cumbersome constructions and is best avoided. Whoever is in charge of the meeting needs to publish the agenda. [Better: The person (who is) in charge of the meeting needs to publish the agenda.] Whoever calls first gets the job. [Better: The applicant who calls first gets the job.] Whoever the leaders are will get the praise or the blame. [Better: The leaders will get the praise or the blame.] The manager always selects whoever he thinks is most qualified. [Better: The manager always selects the person (who) he thinks is most qualified.] Donna will assign the project to whoever has time to do it. [Better: Donna will assign the project to the writers who have time to do it.]
	whom [all topics] Like the pronouns me, him, her, us, and them, the pronoun whom is used as an object, not a subject. To whom [object of "To"] should I give the meeting agenda? He brought the books for whom [object of "for"]? Please tell me when you decide whom [object of "will hire"] you will hire. Because the use of whom can be difficult and can sound stilted even when used correctly, try to avoid whom by replacing it with a noun phrase. To which person should I give the meeting agenda? He brought the books for which student? Please tell me when you decide which candidate you will hire.
	whomever [all topics] Like the pronoun whom, the pronoun whomever is used as an object, not a subject, but whomever leads to cumbersome constructions and is best avoided. Give the meeting agenda to whomever you see first. [Better: Give the meeting agenda to the first person (whom) you see.] We'll hire whomever you find most qualified. [Better: We'll hire the applicant (whom) you find most qualified.] We'll heap praise on whomever the boss identifies. [Better: We'll heap praise on the person (whom) the boss identifies.]
	who's, whose [all topics] who's = contraction of who is or who has Who's [Who is] scheduled to work Saturday? Who's [Who has] worked overtime this week? whose = possessive form of who Whose schedule shows some free time? Tip: If you can substitute who is or who has for whose in a sentence, the term you need is who's.
	your, yours, you're [all topics] your, yours = possessive forms of you Your test results indicate your intelligence. Is that notebook yours or mine? Tip: The form your's and the form yours' are never correct. you're = contraction of you are Your test results indicate you're [you are] intelligent. You're [you are] responsible for saving your files. Tip: If you can substitute you are for your in a sentence, the term you need is you're.